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An instruction set architecture (ISA) is an abstract model of a computer, also referred to as computer architecture. A realization of an ISA is called an implementation. An ISA permits multiple implementations that may vary in performance, physical size, and monetary cost (among other things); because the ISA serves as the interface between software and hardware, software that has been written or compiled for an ISA can run on different implementations of the same ISA. This has enabled binary compatibility between different generations of computers to be easily achieved, and the development of computer families. Both of these developments have helped to lower the cost of computers and to increase their applicability. For these reasons, the ISA is one of the most important abstractions in computing today.
An ISA defines everything a machine language programmer needs to know in order to program a computer. What an ISA defines differs between ISAs; in general, ISAs define the supported data types, what state there is (such as the main memory and registers) and their semantics (such as the memory consistency and addressing modes), the instruction set (the set of machine instructions that comprises a computer's machine language), and the input/output model.
Data representation
[edit]In the early decades of computing, there were computers that used binary, decimal[1] and even ternary.[2][3] Contemporary computers are almost exclusively binary.
Characters are encoded as strings of bits or digits, using a wide variety of character sets; even within a single manufacturer there were character set differences.
Integers are encoded with a variety of representations, including Sign-magnitude, Ones' complement, Two's complement, Offset binary, Nines' complement and Ten's complement.
Similarly, floating point numbers are encoded with a variety of representations for the sign, exponent and mantissa. In contemporary machines IBM hexadecimal floating-point and IEEE 754 floating point have largely supplanted older formats.
Addresses are typically unsigned integers generated from a combination of fields in an instruction, data from registers and data from storage; the details vary depending on the architecture.
Bits
[edit]Computer architectures are often described as n-bit architectures. In the first 3?4 of the 20th century, n is often 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 48 or 60. In the last 1?3 of the 20th century, n is often 8, 16, or 32, and in the 21st century, n is often 16, 32 or 64, but other sizes have been used (including 6, 39, 128). This is actually a simplification as computer architecture often has a few more or less "natural" data sizes in the instruction set, but the hardware implementation of these may be very different. Many instruction set architectures have instructions that, on some implementations of that instruction set architecture, operate on half and/or twice the size of the processor's major internal datapaths. Examples of this are the Z80, MC68000, and the IBM System/360. On these types of implementations, a twice as wide operation typically also takes around twice as many clock cycles (which is not the case on high performance implementations). On the 68000, for instance, this means 8 instead of 4 clock ticks, and this particular chip may be described as a 32-bit architecture with a 16-bit implementation. The IBM System/360 instruction set architecture is 32-bit, but several models of the System/360 series, such as the IBM System/360 Model 30, have smaller internal data paths, while others, such as the 360/195, have larger internal data paths. The external databus width is not used to determine the width of the architecture; the NS32008, NS32016 and NS32032 were basically the same 32-bit chip with different external data buses. IBM's PowerPC 604 has a 64-bit bus but only 32-bit registers. Early 32-bit microprocessors often had a 24-bit address, as did the System/360 processors.
Digits
[edit]In the first 3?4 of the 20th century, word oriented decimal computers typically had 10 digit[4][5][6] words with a separate sign,[a] using all ten digits in integers and using two digits for exponents[7][5] in floating point numbers.
Endianness
[edit]An architecture may use "big" or "little" endianness, or both, or be configurable to use either. Little-endian processors order bytes in memory with the least significant byte of a multi-byte value in the lowest-numbered memory location. Big-endian architectures instead arrange bytes with the most significant byte at the lowest-numbered address. The x86 architecture as well as several 8-bit architectures are little-endian. Most RISC architectures (SPARC, Power, PowerPC, MIPS) were originally big-endian (ARM was little-endian), but many (including ARM) are now configurable as either.
Endianness only applies to processors that allow individual addressing of units of data (such as bytes) that are smaller than some of the data formats.
Instruction formats
[edit]Opcodes
[edit]In some architectures, an instruction has a single opcode. In others, some instructions have an opcode and one or more modifiers. E.g., on the IBM System/370, byte 0 is the opcode but when byte 0 is a B216 then byte 1 selects a specific instruction, e.g., B20516 is store clock (STCK). On some instruction set architectures, one or more opcode prefixes are used to alter the subsequent opcode or expand the number of opcodes.
Operands
[edit]Addressing modes
[edit]Architectures typically allow instructions to include some combination of operand addressing modes:
- Direct
- The instruction specifies a complete address
- Immediate
- The instruction specifies a value rather than an address
- Indexed
- The instruction specifies a register to use as an index. In some architecture the index is scaled by the operand length.
- Indirect
- The instruction specifies the location of a pointer word that describes the operand, possibly involving multiple levels of indexing and indirection
- Truncated
- The instruction specifies the low order bits and a register provides the high order bits.
- Base-displacement
- The instruction specifies a displacement from an address in a register
- autoincrement/autodecrement
- A register used for indexing, or a pointer word used by indirect addressing, is incremented or decremented by 1, an operand size or an explicit delta
Number of operands
[edit]The number of operands is one of the factors that may give an indication about the performance of the instruction set. A three-operand architecture (2-in, 1-out) will allow
A := B + C
to be computed in one instruction
ADD B, C, A
A two-operand architecture (1-in, 1-in-and-out) will allow
A := A + B
to be computed in one instruction
ADD B, A
but requires that
A := B + C
be done in two instructions
MOVE B, A ADD C, A
Encoding length
[edit]As can be seen in the table below some instructions sets keep to a very simple fixed encoding length, and other have variable-length. Usually it is RISC architectures that have fixed encoding length and CISC architectures that have variable length, but not always.
Instruction sets
[edit] | This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. In particular, Open and Royalty free are not defined and most entries are unsourced. (October 2021) |
The table below compares basic information about instruction set architectures.
Notes:
- Usually the number of registers is a power of two, e.g. 8, 16, 32. In some cases a hardwired-to-zero pseudo-register is included, as "part" of register files of architectures, mostly to simplify indexing modes. The column "Registers" only counts the integer "registers" usable by general instructions at any moment. Architectures always include special-purpose registers such as the program counter (PC). Those are not counted unless mentioned. Note that some architectures, such as SPARC, have register windows; for those architectures, the count indicates how many registers are available within a register window. Also, non-architected registers for register renaming are not counted.
- In the "Type" column, "Register–Register" is a synonym for a common type of architecture, "load–store", meaning that no instruction can directly access memory except some special ones, i.e. load to or store from register(s), with the possible exceptions of memory locking instructions for atomic operations.
- In the "Endianness" column, "Bi" means that the endianness is configurable.
Architecture
|
Bits | Version | Introduced
|
Max # operands |
Type | Design | Registers (excluding FP/vector) |
Instruction encoding | Branch evaluation | Extensions | Open | Royalty free | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6502 | 8 | 1975 | 1 | Register–Memory | CISC | 3 | Variable (8- to 24-bit) |
Condition register | Little | ||||
| 6800 | 8 | 1974 | 1 | Register–Memory | CISC | 3 | Variable (8- to 24-bit) |
Condition register | Big | ||||
| 6809 | 8 | 1978 | 1 | Register–Memory | CISC | 4 | Variable (8- to 32-bit) |
Condition register | Big | ||||
| 680x0 | 32 | 1979 | 2 | Register–Memory | CISC | 8 data and 8 address | Variable | Condition register | Big | ||||
| 8080 | 8 | 1974 | 2 | Register–Memory | CISC | 7 | Variable (8 to 24 bits) |
Condition register | Little | ||||
| 8051 | 32 (8→32) |
1977? | 1 | Register–Register | CISC |
|
Variable (8 to 24 bits) |
Compare and branch | Little | ||||
| x86 | 16, 32, 64 (16→32→64) |
v4 (x86-64) | 1978 | 2 (integer) 3 (AVX)[b] 4 (FMA4 and VPBLENDVPx)[8] |
Register–Memory | CISC |
|
Variable (8086 ~ 80386: variable between 1 and 6 bytes /w MMU + intel SDK, 80486: 2 to 5 bytes with prefix, pentium and onward: 2 to 4 bytes with prefix, x64: 4 bytes prefix, third party x86 emulation: 1 to 15 bytes w/o prefix & MMU . SSE/MMX: 4 bytes /w prefix AVX: 8 Bytes /w prefix) |
Condition code | Little | x87, IA-32, MMX, 3DNow!, SSE, SSE2, PAE, x86-64, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4, BMI, AVX, AES, FMA, XOP, F16C, AMX |
No | No |
| Alpha | 64 | 1992 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 (including "zero") | Fixed (32-bit) |
Condition register | Bi | MVI, BWX, FIX, CIX | No | ||
| ARC | 16/32/64 (32→64) | ARCv3 [9] |
1996 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 16 or 32 including SP user can increase to 60 |
Variable (16- or 32-bit) |
Compare and branch | Bi | APEX User-defined instructions | ||
| ARM/A32 | 32 | ARMv1–v9 | 1983 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC |
|
Fixed (32-bit) |
Condition code | Bi | NEON, Jazelle, VFP, TrustZone, LPAE |
No | |
| Thumb/T32 | 32 | ARMv4T-ARMv8 | 1994 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC |
|
Thumb: Fixed (16-bit), Thumb-2: Variable (16- or 32-bit) |
Condition code | Bi | NEON, Jazelle, VFP, TrustZone, LPAE |
No | |
| Arm64/A64 | 64 | v8.9-A/v9.4-A, [10] Armv8-R [11] |
2011 [12] |
3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 (including the stack pointer/"zero" register) | Fixed (32-bit), Variable (32-bit or 64-bit for FMA4 with 32-bit prefix[13]) |
Condition code | Bi | SVE and SVE2 | No | |
| AVR | 8 | 1997 | 2 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 16 on "reduced architecture" |
Variable (mostly 16-bit, four instructions are 32-bit) | Condition register, skip conditioned on an I/O or general purpose register bit, compare and skip |
Little | ||||
| AVR32 | 32 | Rev 2 | 2006 | 2–3 | RISC | 15 | Variable [14] |
Big | Java virtual machine | ||||
| Blackfin | 32 | 2000 | 3 [15] |
Register–Register | RISC [16] |
2 accumulators
8 data registers 8 pointer registers 4 index registers 4 buffer registers |
Variable (16- or 32-bit) | Condition code | Little [17] |
||||
| CDC Upper 3000 series | 48 | 1963 | 3 | Register–Memory | CISC | 48-bit A reg., 48-bit Q reg., 6 15-bit B registers, miscellaneous | Variable (24- or 48-bit) |
Multiple types of jump and skip | Big | ||||
| CDC 6000 Central Processor (CP) |
60 | 1964 | 3 | Register–Register | N/A[c] | 24 (8 18-bit address reg., 8 18-bit index reg., 8 60-bit operand reg.) |
Variable (15-, 30-, or 60-bit) |
Compare and branch | N/A[d] | Compare/Move Unit | No | No | |
| CDC 6000 Peripheral Processor (PP) |
12 | 1964 | 1 or 2 | Register–Memory | CISC | 1 18-bit A register, locations 1–63 serve as index registers for some instructions | Variable (12- or 24-bit) |
Test A register, test channel | N/A[e] | additional Peripheral Processing Units | No | No | |
| Crusoe (native VLIW) |
32[18] | 2000 | 1 | Register–Register | VLIW [18][19] |
Variable (64- or 128-bit in native mode, 15 bytes in x86 emulation)[19] |
Condition code[18] | Little | |||||
| Elbrus 2000 (native VLIW) |
64 | v6 | 2007 | 1 | Register–Register[18] | VLIW | 8–64 | 64 | Condition code | Little | Just-in-time dynamic translation: x87, IA-32, MMX, SSE, SSE2, x86-64, SSE3, AVX |
No | No |
| DLX | 32 | ? | 1990 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 | Fixed (32-bit) |
Condition register | Big | ? | Yes | ? |
| eSi-RISC | 16/32 | 2009 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 8–72 | Variable (16- or 32-bit) | Compare and branch and condition register |
Bi | User-defined instructions | No | No | |
| iAPX 432[20] | 32 | 1981 | 3 | Stack machine | CISC | 0 | Variable (6 to 321 bits) | No | No | ||||
| Itanium (IA-64) |
64 | 2001 | Register–Register | EPIC | 128 | Fixed (128-bit bundles with 5-bit template tag and 3 instructions, each 41-bit long) |
Condition register | Bi (selectable) |
Intel Virtualization Technology | No | No | ||
| LoongArch | 32, 64 | 2021 | 4 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 (including "zero") | Fixed (32-bit) | Little | No | No | |||
| M32R | 32 | 1997 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 16 | Variable (16- or 32-bit) |
Condition register | Bi | ||||
| m88k | 32 | 1988 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 | Fixed (32-bit) |
Compare and branch | Big | ||||
| Mico32 | 32 | ? | 2006 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 [21] |
Fixed (32-bit) |
Compare and branch | Big | User-defined instructions | Yes [22] |
Yes |
| MIPS | 64 (32→64) |
6 [23] [24] |
1981 | 1–3 | Register–Register | RISC | 4–32 (including "zero") | Fixed (32-bit) |
Condition register | Bi | MDMX, MIPS-3D | No | No [25] [26] |
| MMIX | 64 | ? | 1999 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 256 | Fixed (32-bit) |
Condition register | Big | ? | Yes | Yes |
| Nios II | 32 | ? | 2000 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 | Fixed (32-bit) | Condition register | Little | Soft processor that can be instantiated on an Altera FPGA device | No | On Altera/Intel FPGA only |
| Nova | 16 | 1969 | 2 | Register–Register | CISC | 4 | Fixed (16-bit) |
Skip | None | ||||
| NS320xx | 32 | 1982 | 5 | Memory–Memory | CISC | 8 | Variable Huffman coded, up to 23 bytes long | Condition code | Little | BitBlt instructions | |||
| OpenRISC | 32, 64 | 1.4 [27] |
2000 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 16 or 32 | Fixed | Condition code | Bi | ? | Yes | Yes |
| PA-RISC (HP/PA) |
64 (32→64) |
2.0 | 1986 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 | Fixed (32-bit) |
Compare and branch | Big → Bi | MAX | No | |
| PDP-5 [28] PDP-8 [29] |
12 | 1963 | Register–Memory | CISC | 1 accumulator
1 multiplier quotient register |
Fixed (12-bit) |
Condition register
Test and branch |
EAE (Extended Arithmetic Element) | |||||
| PDP-11 | 16 | 1970 | 2 | Memory–Memory | CISC | 8 (includes program counter and stack pointer, though any register can act as stack pointer) | Variable (16-, 32-, or 48-bit) |
Condition code | Little | Extended Instruction Set, Floating Instruction Set, Floating Point Processor, Commercial Instruction Set | No | No | |
| POWER, PowerPC, Power ISA | 32/64 (32→64) |
3.1[30] | 1990 | 3 (mostly). FMA, LD/ST-Update | Register–Register | RISC | 32 GPR, 8 4-bit Condition Fields, Link Register, Counter Register | Fixed (32-bit), Variable (32- or 64-bit with the 32-bit prefix[30]) |
Condition code, Branch-Counter auto-decrement | Bi | AltiVec, APU, VSX, Cell, Floating-point, Matrix Multiply Assist | Yes | Yes |
| RISC-V | 32, 64, 128 | 20191213 [31] |
2010 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 (including "zero") | Variable | Compare and branch | Little | ? | Yes | Yes |
| RX | 64/32/16 | 2000 | 3 | Memory–Memory | CISC | 4 integer + 4 address | Variable | Compare and branch | Little | No | |||
| S+core | 16/32 | 2005 | RISC | Little | |||||||||
| SPARC | 64 (32→64) |
OSA2017 [32] |
1985 | 3 | Register–Register | RISC | 32 (including "zero") | Fixed (32-bit) |
Condition code | Big → Bi | VIS | Yes | Yes [33] |
| SuperH (SH) | 32 | ? | 1994 | 2 | Register–Register Register–Memory |
RISC | 16 | Fixed (16- or 32-bit), Variable |
Condition code (single bit) |
Bi | ? | Yes | Yes |
| System/360 System/370 System/390 z/Architecture |
64 (32→64) |
1964 | 2 (most) 3 (FMA, distinct operand facility) 4 (some vector inst.) |
Register–Memory Memory–Memory Register–Register |
CISC | 16 general 16 control (S/370 and later) 16 access (ESA/370 and later) 32 vector registers (z13 and later) |
Variable (16-, 32-, or 48-bit) |
Condition code, compare and branch [auto increment], Branch-Counter auto-decrement | Big | No | No | ||
| TMS320 C6000 series | 32 | 1983 | 3 | Register-Register | VLIW | 32 on C67x 64 on C67x+ |
Fixed (256-bit bundles with 8 instructions, each 32-bit long) |
Condition register | Bi | No | No | ||
| Transputer | 32 (4→64) |
1987 | 1 | Stack machine | MISC | 3 (as stack) | Fixed (8-bit) |
Compare and branch | Little | ||||
| VAX | 32 | 1977 | 6 | Memory–Memory | CISC | 16 | Variable | Condition code, compare and branch | Little | No | |||
| Z80 | 8 | 1976 | 2 | Register–Memory | CISC | 17 | Variable (8 to 32 bits) |
Condition register | Little |
See also
[edit]- Central processing unit (CPU)
- Processor design
- Comparison of CPU microarchitectures
- Instruction set architecture
- Microprocessor
- Benchmark (computing)
Notes
[edit]- ^ Normally the sign could only be plus or minus, but on the IBM 7070/72/74[5] there was a 3-state sign.
- ^ The LEA (all processors) and IMUL-immediate (80186 & later) instructions accept three operands; most other instructions of the base integer ISA accept no more than two operands.
- ^ partly RISC: load/store architecture and simple addressing modes, partly CISC: three instruction lengths and no single instruction timing
- ^ Since memory is an array of 60-bit words with no means to access sub-units, big endian vs. little endian makes no sense. The optional CMU unit uses big-endian semantics.
- ^ Since memory is an array of 12-bit words with no means to access sub-units, big endian vs. little endian makes no sense.
References
[edit]- ^ da Cruz, Frank (October 18, 2004). "The IBM Naval Ordnance Research Calculator". Columbia University Computing History. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
- ^ "Russian Virtual Computer Museum _ Hall of Fame _ Nikolay Petrovich Brusentsov".
- ^ Trogemann, Georg; Nitussov, Alexander Y.; Ernst, Wolfgang (2001). Computing in Russia: the history of computer devices and information technology revealed. Vieweg+Teubner Verlag. pp. 19, 55, 57, 91, 104–107. ISBN 978-3-528-05757-2..
- ^ 650 magnetic drum data processing machine (PDF). IBM. June 1955. 22-6060-2. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
- ^ a b c IBM 7070-7074 Principles of Operation (PDF). Systems Reference Library. IBM. 1962. GA22-7003-6. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
- ^ UNIVAC? Solid-state 80 Computer (PDF). Sperry Rand Corporation. 1959. U1742.1r3. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
- ^ IBM 650 MDDPM Additional Features - Indexing Accumulators - Floating-Decimal Arithmetic - Advanced Write-Up (PDF). IBM. 1955. 22-6258-0. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
- ^ "AMD64 Architecture Programmer's Manual Volume 6: 128-Bit and 256-Bit XOP and FMA4 Instructions" (PDF). AMD. November 2009.
- ^ "Synopsys Introduces New 64-bit ARC Processor IP Delivering up to 3x Performance Increase for High-End Embedded Applications".
- ^ "Arm A-Profile Architecture Developments 2022 - Architectures and Processors blog - Arm Community blogs - Arm Community". community.arm.com. 29 September 2022. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
- ^ Frumusanu, Andrei (September 3, 2020). "ARM Announced Cortex-R82: First 64-bit Real Time Processor". AnandTech.
- ^ "ARM goes 64-bit with new ARMv8 chip architecture". Computerworld. 27 October 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Toshio Yoshida. "Hot Chips 30 conference; Fujitsu briefing" (PDF). Fujitsu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2025-08-06.
- ^ "AVR32 Architecture Document" (PDF). Atmel. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
- ^ "Blackfin manual" (PDF). analog.com.
- ^ "Blackfin Processor Architecture Overview". Analog Devices. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
- ^ "Blackfin memory architecture". Analog Devices. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
- ^ a b c d e "Crusoe Exposed: Transmeta TM5xxx Architecture 2". Real World Technologies.
- ^ a b c Alexander Klaiber (January 2000). "The Technology Behind Crusoe Processors" (PDF). Transmeta Corporation. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
- ^ Intel Corporation (1981). Introduction to the iAPX 432 Architecture (PDF). pp. iii.
- ^ "LatticeMico32 Architecture". Lattice Semiconductor. Archived from the original on 23 June 2010.
- ^ "LatticeMico32 Open Source Licensing". Lattice Semiconductor. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010.
- ^ MIPS64 Architecture for Programmers: Release 6
- ^ MIPS32 Architecture for Programmers: Release 6
- ^ MIPS Open
- ^ "Wave Computing Closes Its MIPS Open Initiative with Immediate Effect, Zero Warning".
- ^ OpenRISC Architecture Revisions
- ^ PDP-5 Handbook (PDF). Digital Equipment Corporation. February 1964.
- ^ PDP-8 Users Handbook (PDF). Digital Equipment Corporation. May 1966.
- ^ a b "Power ISA Version 3.1". openpowerfoundation.org. 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
- ^ "RISC-V ISA Specifications". Retrieved 17 June 2019.
- ^ Oracle SPARC Processor Documentation
- ^ SPARC Architecture License